Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation

The Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation was an intermittent war over the future of the island of Borneo, between Indonesia and British-backed Malaysia in 1962-1966. It is called "Konfrontasi" in the Indonesian and Malay languages.During the "Official" period of the confrontation, 23 serving Australians, 114 from other Commonwealth forces and an estimated 600 Indonesian servicemen died.

The following is a collection of articles and reports dealing with the countries involved in the Confrontation.

In 1961, the island of Borneo was divided into four separate states: Kalimantan, an Indonesian province, was located in the south of the island. In the north were the kingdom of Brunei and two British colonies: Sarawak and British North Borneo (which was later renamed Sabah). As a part of its withdrawal from its Southeast Asian colonies, the UK moved to combine its colonies on Borneo with those on peninsular Malaya, to form Malaysia.

This move was opposed by the government of Indonesia; President Sukarno argued that Malaysia was a puppet of the British, and that the consolidation of Malaysia would increase British control over the region, threatening the independence of Indonesia. Similarly, the Philippines made a claim for Sabah, arguing that it had historic links with the Philippines through the Sulu archipelago.

In Brunei, the Indonesian-backed North Kalimantan National Army (TKNU) revolted on 8th. December, 1962. They tried to capture the Sultan of Brunei, seize the oil fields and take European hostages. The Sultan escaped and asked for British help. He received British and Gurkha troops from Singapore. On December 16th., 1962, British Far Eastern Command claimed that all major rebel centers had been occupied, the rebel commander was captured and the rebellion ended.

The Philippines and Indonesia formally agreed to accept the formation of Malaysia if a majority in the disputed region voted for it in a referendum organized by the United Nations. However, before the results of the vote were reported, the Malaysian government announced that the federation would be created, depicting the decision as an internal matter, with no need for consultation. The Indonesian government saw this as a broken promise and as evidence of British imperialism.

Contrary to popular belief, no firm evidence has ever been unearthed to support claims that Sukarno had territorial ambitions over Sarawak.  More likely was that Sukarno invested hopes for the establishment of a North Kalimantan state aligned to Jakartas anti-colonial/imperialist geopolitics, in which he found suitable allies.

Local opposition and sentiments against the Malaysian Federation plan has often been under-represented in historical writings on the Brunei Revolt and the subsequent Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation. In fact, political forces in Sarawak had long anticipated their own national independence as promised (but later aborted) by the last White Rajah of Sarawak, Charles Vyner Brooke, back in 1941. Left-wing and communist cell groups, which grew rapidly among Sarawaks urban Chinese communities since the 1950s (which later became the nucleus of the anti-Malaysia PARAKU and PGRS guerrilla forces), supported and propagated the unification of all British Borneo territories to form an independent leftist North Kalimantan state, an idea originally proposed by Dr. Azhari, leader of the Parti Rakyat Brunei, who had forged links with Sukarnos nationalist movement in Java since the 1940s. The North Kalimantan (or Kalimantan Utara) proposal was seen as a post-decolonization alternative by local opposition against the Malaysian Federation plan. Local opposition throughout the Borneo territories was primarily based on economic, political, historical and cultural differences between the Borneo states and the Malayan peninsula, and the refusal to be subjected under peninsular political domination.

On January 20th., 1963, Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio announced that Indonesia would pursue a policy of Konfrontasi with Malaysia. On April 12th., Indonesian volunteers, allegedly Indonesian Army personnel, began to infiltrate Sarawak and Sabah, to engage in raids and sabotage, and spread propaganda. On July 27th., Sukarno declared that he was going to "crush Malaysia" or in Indonesian Malay "Ganyang Malaysia". On August 16th., troopers of the Brigade of Gurkhas clashed with fifty Indonesian guerillas.

While the Philippines did not engage in warfare, they did break off diplomatic relations with Malaysia.

The Federation of Malaysia was formally formed on September 16th., 1963. Brunei decided against joining, and Singapore separated later.

Tensions rose on both sides of the Straits of Malacca. Two days later rioters burned the British embassy in Jakarta & several hundred rioters sacked the Singapore embassy and the homes of Singaporean diplomats in Jakarta . In Malaysia, Indonesian agents were captured and crowds attacked the Indonesian embassy in Kuala Lumpur.

Sukarno was limited in his options for opposing Malaysia. Although equipped with modern weapons from Moscow, the Indonesian armed forces were not capable of prevailing in an open engagement with the British. Instead, Sukarno decided to encourage and support subversive movements already existing in Borneo. If allowed to develop into a major insurgency, the British might eventually be worn down into abandoning the objective of greater Malaysia altogether. By the end of 1963, this strategy increasingly involved Indonesian army regulars, posing as guerrillas, crossing the border from Kalimantan to attack the security forces in Borneo and then quickly retreating to the safety of Indonesian territory, so there was an ongoing border war; Indonesian troops and irregulars tried to occupy Sarawak and Sabah, with little success. In April the British Government gave permission for their forces to carry out raids behind enemy lines in Kalimantan and so began "Operation Claret"

In 1964, Indonesian troops began to raid areas in the Malay peninsula. In August, 16 armed Indonesian agents were captured in Johore. Activity by regular Indonesian Army over the border also increased. The British Royal Navy deployed a number of warships, including an aircraft carrier, to the area to defend Malaysia and the Royal Air Force also deployed many squadrons of aircraft. Commonwealth ground forces; 18 battalions, including elements of the Brigade of Gurkhas and three Malaysian battalions, were also committed to the conflict. The Commonwealth troops were thinly deployed and had to rely on border posts and reconnaissance by light infantry and/or the two commando units of the Royal Marines. Their main mission was to prevent further Indonesian incursions into Malaysia.

Royal Australian Navy ships attached to the BCFESR began patrol and anti insurgent duties. Minesweepers of the RAN 16th. MCM Squadron were deployed to the BCFESR for inshore patrol and minesweeping.

In July and September 1964, race riots occurred in Singapore and although thought to have been orchestrated by the Indon, eventually led to the succession of Singapore from Malaysia.

On August 17th., 1964, Indonesian paratroopers landed on the southwest coast of Johore and attempted to establish guerilla groups. On September 2nd., more paratroopers landed in Labis, Johore. On October 29th., 52 soldiers landed in Pontian on the Johore-Malacca border and were captured by New Zealand Army personnel.

When the United Nations accepted Malaysia as a nonpermanent member, Sukarno withdrew Indonesia from the UN and attempted to form the Conference of New Emerging Forces (Conefo) as an alternative.

In January 1965, after many Malaysian requests, Australia agreed to send troops to Borneo. Australian Army contingent included the 3rd Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment and the Australian Special Air Service Regiment. There were fourteen thousand British and Commonwealth forces in Borneo by this time. According to official policy, Commonwealth troops could not follow attackers over the Indonesian border. However, units like the British Special Air Service and the Australian Special Air Service did so in secret. (The Australian government officially admitted these incursions in 1996, following the release of secret war documents governed by the 30 year secrecy act.)

On March 10th., 1965, Indonesian saboteurs carried out the MacDonald House bombing in Singapore killing 3 people and injured 33.

In mid-1965, the Indonesian government began to openly use Indonesian army forces. On June 28th., they crossed the border into eastern Sebatik Island near Tawau, Sabah, and clashed with defenders, including a frigate of the RAN which carried out jungle bombardments to harass the withdrawing Indonesians.

Early in 1966 a group of generals lead by General Suharto came to power in Indonesia, following a coup. Due to this domestic conflict, Indonesian interest in pursuing the war with Malaysia declined, and combat eased.

On May 28th., 1966 at a conference in Bangkok, the Malaysian and Indonesian governments declared the conflict over. Violence ended in June, and a peace treaty was signed on August 11th. and ratified two days later.

The political situation in Indonesia had dramatically changed and several attempts were made since the end of May, 1966, to start the reconciliation process. A new Government (the Gotong Royong cabinet) had been installed headed by General Suharto. On 11th., August 1966, Foreign Minister Adam Malik signed a Reconciliation agreement with the Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign affairs Minister of Malaysia Tun Razak thereby ending the confrontation policy: peace came about on the 12th. August 1966, the day after the signing of the Reconciliation agreement . The agreement on the restoration of relations was the result of negotiations between Foreign Minister Adam Malik and Tun Razak in Bangkok on May 28th., 1966 that was referred to as the "Bangkok Agreement".

General Suharto in his policy statement regarding the Malaysian issue stated that the settlement of the conflict had not altered the basis and implementations of Indonesian foreign policy. It was now possible to escalate foreign policy activities towards the establishment of close and mutually beneficial co-operative relations among Southeast Asian countries.

On 19th., September 1966, the Indonesian Ambassador to the United States L.N. Palar transmitted the following message to the Secretary General of the United Nations: "With reference to the letter of 20th., January, from the Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister of Indonesia and to your letter of 26th., February, 1965. In answer thereto, I hereby have the honour upon instruction of my Government to inform you that my Government has decided to resume full co-operation with the United Nations and to resume participation in its activities starting with the twenty-first session of the General Assembly. A delegation headed by the Foreign Minister will arrive to attend the Assembly."

On 22nd., September, 1966, a Delegation headed by Adam Malik a member of the Presidium for political Affairs and Minister for Foreign Affairs conferred with the Secretary General and reiterated the decision of the Government of Indonesia to resume full participation in the activities of the United Nations as stated in the telegram of 19th., September, 1966. The President of the General Assembly Ambassador Abdul Rahman Pazhwak recounted the background behind the Indonesian decision to withdraw from the United Nations.

The President stated that it would be assumed that it is the will of the membership that Indonesia should meet in full its budgetary obligation. “Unless I hear any objection I assume that it is the will of the membership that Indonesia would resume full activities of the Untied Nations and the Secretary General may proceed in the manner I have outlined. There being no objection, I invite the members of the Indonesian Delegation to take their seats in the General Assembly”.

“Since the first day of this Assembly last Tuesday several representatives have referred to my countrys resumption of activities in the United Nations and have expressed their warm welcome to my Government and Delegation.  Permit me Mr. President to thank you for your words of welcome and for your co-operation in smoothen the way for our return to the United Nations. I wish also to express the gratitude of my delegation for the statements of the same nature by representatives. My delegation is indeed deeply moved by their expression of confidence and looks forward with enthusiasm to co-operation and collaboration with all delegations. Finally may I thank you Mr. Secretary General for your assistance and the Secretariat for your advice and co-operation in making our reparticipation a smooth and happy one”.

The British responded to Confrontation in a two-pronged manner. In order to deter the Indonesians from mounting an open attack on Malaysia, substantial air and naval forces from Commonwealth countries in the area were deployed in and around Singapore.

Policy-makers saw a British nuclear force as an important contribution not only to NATO, but also to the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), created in 1954. In 1956 a report to the Chiefs of Staff concluded that nuclear weapons would have to be used if war broke out between the SEATO powers and China, and although the Chiefs themselves were a little uncomfortable with this conclusion, planning went ahead.
A 1957 Air Ministry report found that British Valiant, Vulcan, and Victor aircraft (known as "V-bombers") carrying the Blue Danube (nuclear) bomb would be unable to reach the Far East because of short runways and limited facilities at key airfields along the route. The report recommended developing Gan, an island in the Maldives, as a staging post for bomber reinforcements, and Tengah, an existing RAF base in Singapore, as a temporary base for V-bomber squadrons.
In 1957 V-bombers began to make familiarization flights to the Far East without nuclear weapons on board, and in 1958 it was decided to construct a permanent storage facility for nuclear weapons at Tengah. By 1960 the RAF was involved in drawing up nuclear targeting plans for SEATO and had made plans to move 48 Red Beard tactical nuclear weapons to Tengah in 1962. Three squadrons of V-bombers would be based there, capable of dropping Red Beard weapons from high altitude, together with one squadron of smaller Canberra aircraft, which would use a low-altitude bombing system, or "toss bombing" tactic. In September 1960, a dummy Red Beard weapon was flown for the first time by RAF transport aircraft to Singapore, via El Adem, in Libya; Khormaksar, in present-day Yemen; and Gan. Special equipment to handle nuclear weapons had been deployed to these airfields, and also to Embakasi, Kenya, and Butterworth, a Royal Australian Air Force base in Malaya.

The political problems of moving live nuclear weapons overseas were already clear. As early as 1957 a storm was created when Minister of Defence Duncan Sandys seemed to announce, at a press conference in Australia, that nuclear weapons would be stored in Malaya and Singapore. In July 1961 Britains High Commissioner in Singapore, Lord Selkirk, advised that even the presence of dummy weapons in the Far East would be politically sensitive.

Nevertheless, on August 17, 1962, Prime Minister Macmillan authorized the RAF to deploy both live and dummy weapons to Tengah. The live weapons were to be held at all times in their special storage area, but in November 1963, permission was granted to train with dummy weapons in the open.
Militarily, the justification for these deployments was still the possibility of limited war between the SEATO powers and China. Politically, by making a nuclear contribution to SEATO, Macmillan was trying to gain a measure of influence over U.S. nuclear policy in a region where Britain and the United States had historically been at odds; he was concerned, like a number of post-war British prime ministers, by the risk of U.S. belligerence in Korea, Taiwan, or Indochina. Macmillans ministers had convinced him that British deployments, by contrast, carried no risk. But Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman, although generally pro-British, was not informed. (Singapore had recently won independence from Britain as part of the Federation of Malaysia.) The British government had made a visible military commitment to SEATO, choosing to do so through the relatively inexpensive medium of a squadron of nuclear-capable aircraft, but it was coy about admitting, even privately, to the actual presence of nuclear weapons.

1963 also saw the deployment of nuclear capable British V-bombers (Hanley Page Victor bombers) to Singapore as a deterrent to Indonesia at the beginning of the Indonesian Confrontation. Victor bombers were soon replaced by Avro Vulcan nuclear capable V-bombers.

British Vulcan (V-bombers) were never sent permanently to the Far East. Instead, four to eight were dispatched to Tengah, Singapore and RAAF Butterworth, Malaya between 1963 and 1966 during the "confrontation" between Malaysia and Indonesia. These aircraft would have been tasked, if the confrontation had escalated, with conventional bombing of Indonesian airfields to begin with. Nuclear bombs would only be used as a last resort. In addition, the Canberra squadron at Tengah began low-altitude nuclear bombing exercises at the end of 1963. This squadron remained in the Far East until 1970, although it is not clear that it necessarily remained nuclear equipped. The British government decided that any further escalation by the Indonesians would result in British Vulcan bombers conducting raids against Indonesian targets using RAAF Base Darwin as their operating base, but there is no evidence that any of the 48 nuclear bombs were moved to Darwin. During confrontation only one raid by two Victor-bombers took place against Indonesia.. But throughout the 1960s V-bombers were also sent to the Far East on SEATO nuclear reinforcement exercises.

RAAF Bloodhound surface to air missiles (SAMs) deployed to Darwin in 1964. It was not only the Indonesian hostility towards Malaysia that was of grave concern, but the Indonesian Air Force had been violating Australian airspace by overflying Darwin and penetrating well south over the mainland, all at a time when RAAF Base Tindal was under construction.

RAAF Nos 75 and 76 Squadrons were deployed to Darwin, however their Sabre aircraft were not capable of effectively intercepting the Indonesian aircraft. While the Mirage was coming, it was not yet operational and RAAF Base Darwin was vulnerable, a recognized fact in view of the proposal to move the 48 red beard nuclear weapons from Singapore to Darwin if the Indonesian Confrontation escalated

Back in 1961, RAAF No. 30 Squadron was reformed and equipped with Bloodhound Mk I surface to air missiles The Bloodhound flight envelope was more suited to short range high altitude interceptions than was the Sabre, so at some time in 1964 the decision was made to move a detachment of Bloodhounds to Darwin.

This involved a complex land, sea and air operation to transport and install the fully operational live fire surface to air missile system alongside No. 2 Control and Reporting Unit at Lee Point.

Part of the Bloodhound system was the precision illuminating radar that also had a search capability which overcame much of the shortcomings of 2CRU. The system became operational in mid-1965 and remained until the end of 1968 when Bloodhound was withdrawn from service.

Even though the political climate did improve in these years, 30 SQN was called to full operating readiness on numerous occasions, the last being only weeks before closing down. Nothing can detract from the fact that the RAAF 75 & 76 squadrons, including No. 30 SAM Squadron, were deployed to Darwin for war with Indonesia.

The Royal Navy took delivery of its first tactical nuclear weapons, Red Beards, to be carried by Scimitar aircraft on navy carriers, in 1959. Clearance for the Scimitar to take off with nuclear weapons "only in conditions of an extreme operational emergency" was received in August 1960. Although the navy originally viewed the Red Beard as a weapon for sinking ships in the North Atlantic, by the time it entered service, it seemed most likely to be used in a limited war in the Far East.
The aircraft carriers Victorious and Hermes (< photo) sailed for Singapore at the end of 1960, and for the next 10 years the operational lives of the Royal Navy carriers (including Ark Royal, photo >) revolved around deployments east of Suez, where they took their place in SEATO war planning and nuclear targeting. Arrangements were in place to embark and disembark nuclear weapons at the Singapore naval dockyard for transport to nearby RAF airfields if necessary, but the weapons appear to have been stored on board ship. The fissile components were stored away from the assemblies, and permission to join the two was never given in peacetime. When in 1963, the Indonesian Confrontation began, the British airforce and navy were already nuclear capable in the region.
Like its U.S. counterpart, the Royal Navy has always followed a "neither confirm nor deny" policy on the presence or absence of nuclear weapons on its ships. By 1966, the governments of Ceylon and New Zealand had already expressed unease at the possibility of Royal Navy ships carrying nuclear weapons into their ports. In fact, the RN had only about 25 nuclear weapons. Only five aircraft carriers, two armament stores ships, and (by the very end of the 1960s) two Tiger class anti submarine cruisers, had been equipped to carry the weapons. The only ammunition stores ships in the Far East during Confrontation specially set up to resupply the RN carriers were RFAs Retainer (A 329) and Resurgent (A 280): there is no evidence to suggest that either of these RFAs ever carried any nuclear weapons, however it is most probable that they did.

Red Beard was the first British tactical nuclear weapon. It was carried by the English Electric Canberra and the V bombers of the Royal Air Force, and by the Blackburn Buccaneers and Supermarine Scimitars of the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm. It entered service in 1962 and was withdrawn in 1971. Red Beard was about 4 meters (12 feet) long and weighed about 1,750 lb (794 kg). (Photo: A Red Beard tactical atomic bomb on its bomb trolley awaiting loading into a Canberra bomber.) The perforated baffles were a feature to reduce bomb bay buffetting when the Canberra bomb doors opened, and were not needed on other aircraft. Red Beard was known to the RAF as Bomb, Aircraft, HE 2000 lb MC, athough its actual weight was 1750 lb. It was deployed on a wide variety of aircraft of the RAF and Royal Navy, being stockpiled in the UK, Cyprus, Singapore and afloat on carriers.

The main concern for British military planners throughout the conflict, however, was containing the insurgency in Borneo. Here the security forces were in an impossible situation. They were required to defend a frontier of approximately 1600 kilometres, in extremely dense jungle and against an enemy who could retreat to the safety of Indonesian Kalimantan. Increasingly frustrated, Major-General Sir Walter Walker, director of operations in Borneo, requested permission to pursue the guerrillas across the border. After considerable debate, London finally agreed in April 1964.

The objective of cross-border operations, code-named "Claret", was to wrest the initiative from the enemy. Accordingly, starting in May that year, predominantly SAS troops, British Special Air Service and Australian Special Air Service, operating in groups of four, regularly patrolled territory immediately across the border. When a patrol discovered enemy guerrillas moving towards Borneo, it would arrange for them to be ambushed as they crossed the border.

The patrols went up to 10 miles into Kalimantan, to detect Indonesian forces about to enter Sarawak. Conventional Commonwealth troops were then directed into position to ambush the invaders as they crossed the border.

The fact that nothing was know about these "Claret" operations until 1996, speaks volumes for the integrity of the soldiers of the time as operations were graded "top secret".

These operations were a violation of official and international treaties; although the incursions were initially denied, both the British and the Australian governments admitted the attacks in 1996. As we have seen, the Australian Government treated the Australian people with contempt by misleading them over operations and its own role during the Indonesian Confrontation.( See: Sukano, the Coup of 1965 and the Australian Involvement.)

This strategy, both regarding deterrence and military operations, was remarkably successful in containing the insurgency to a low level of conflict. Nonetheless, it required a considerable deployment of Britains limited resources and manpower. By early 1965, for example, Britain had more than 60,000 servicemen deployed in the region, together with a surface fleet of more than eighty warships, including two aircraft-carriers. It was not surprising, therefore, that, starting in December 1963, repeated requests were made by the British for Australia and New Zealand to send combat forces into Borneo to assist in containing the insurgency. Australian Special Air Service forces had been deployed in secret to Borneo and Australia initially refused to "officially" send troops to Malaysia until January 1965 when HMAS Sydney now converted to a fast troop transport, carried troops and equipment to Jesselton in North Borneo. There were already Australian & New Zealand forces in place in Malaysia as part of an ongoing commitment to the BCFESR.

In responding to these requests the National administration in NZ led by K.J. Holyoake had to weigh carefully certain countervailing policy considerations. On the one hand, there was no disagreement that Malaysia should be supported. In both official and public eyes, Indonesia had committed clear and frequent acts of aggression against the new state. On the other hand, however, Wellington was eager to avoid New Zealand becoming embroiled in a major war with Indonesia. Policy-makers realised that, in the event of considerable bloodshed, New Zealands relations with its closest Asian neighbour could be poisoned for generations to come. Consequently, the government initially refused to send troops into Borneo, arguing that British and Malaysian forces already stationed there were sufficient to deal with the problem.

Deeply frustrated by the failure of Confrontation to make any real headway, Sukarno decided in mid 1964 to intensify it by extending military operations to the Malay peninsula. On 1 September, ninety-eight Indonesian paratroopers landed just north of Labis in Johore. One of the few available Commonwealth units in the area was 1st Battalion, RNZIR, which, with Wellingtons permission, was used to hunt down the infiltrators, most of whom surrendered without a struggle. Later, on 29 October, the New Zealanders were involved in a similar operation to capture a small amphibious force which had landed at the mouth of the Sungei Kesang River north-west of Muar. In addition to these activities, the RNZAFs 14 Squadron, consisting of six Canberra bombers, was deployed to Singapore, where it remained as part of the Commonwealths air power deterrent until the end of Confrontation.

Sukarno responded to these failures by substantially increasing the flow of insurgents crossing the border into Borneo. With Britains military resources stretched to almost breaking point, the New Zealand government believed it could no longer decline the genuine appeals for assistance coming from London. On 1 February 1965 the Prime Minister announced that a small Special Air Service detachment, together with the 1RNZIR, would be deployed in Borneo as soon as possible. In addition, New Zealand crews would man two former Royal Navy minesweepers, renamed HMNZS Hickleton and Santon, which would join the new Type 12 frigate HMNZS Taranaki in patrolling Malaysian waters around the Malacca Strait.

During late February the 1st Ranger Squadron NZSAS, comprising about forty men under the command of Major W.J.D. Meldrum, began its tour of duty. They were replaced by a similarly sized detachment, commanded by Major R.S. Dearing, in October the same year. Both detachments took part in Claret operations alongside Britains 22nd Regiment SAS. 1RNZIR, commanded by Colonel R.M. Gurr, was not deployed in Borneo until May 1965, when it relieved a Gurkha battalion in Sarawak. In a series of skirmishes, it inflicted substantial losses on the enemy without suffering any fatal casualties. Relieved during October, 1RNZIR returned to its base in Malaya. By the time it was redeployed to Borneo in May 1966, Confrontation had all but ended.

A state of Malaysia, in NW Borneo and on the South China Sea. It is bordered on the NE by the states of Brunei and Sabah and on the S and W by Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo). Kuching is the capital, and Sibu is an important port. Petroleum is the chief mineral, and timber, sago, pepper, and rubber are important exports. Sometimes called the Land of the White Rajahs, Sarawak was ceded (1841) by the sultan of Brunei to James Brooke, an Englishman, who became rajah of the independent state. It became a British protectorate in 1888, but remained under the control of the Brooke family. In World War II the area was occupied by the Japanese. The Brookes ceded Sarawak to the British in 1946, and it became a crown colony. A leftist revolt (Dec., 1962) in nearby Brunei spread to Sarawak, and the rebels, who opposed the formation of the proposed Federation of Malaysia, occupied several towns. The revolt was quelled by British troops. However, sporadic activity by the rebels, who apparently were supported by Indonesia, continued into 1963, when Malaysia was formed. The name of the state is sometimes spelled Serawak.

North Borneo was an independent state and British protectorate under the sovereign British North Borneo Company from 1882-1946, and subsequently a crown colony of the United Kingdom from 1946-1963. It is located on the northwestern end of the island of Borneo. It is now the state of Sabah, eastern Malaysia.

In 1865, the United States Consul to Brunei, Claude Lee Moses obtained a 10-year lease for the territory of North Borneo from the Sultan of Brunei. However, the post-Civil War United States wanted nothing to do with Asian colonies, so Moses sold his rights to the Hong Kong-based American Trading Company owned by Joseph W. Torrey, Thomas B. Harris and some Chinese merchants. Torrey began a settlement at the Kimanis River mouth, which he named 'Ellena'. Attempts to find financial backing for the settlement were futile, and disease, death and desertion by the immigrant labourers led to the abandonment of the settlement towards the end of 1866.

With the imminent termination of the lease at hand in January 1875, Torrey managed to sell his rights to the Consul of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in Hong Kong, Baron Von Overbeck. Von Overbeck managed to get a 10-year renewal of the lease from the Temenggong of Brunei, and a similar treaty from the Sultan of Sulu on January 22, 1878. To finance his plans for North Borneo, Overbeck found financial backing from the Dent brothers (Alfred and Edward). However, he was unable to interest his government in the territory. After efforts to sell the territory to Italy for use as a penal colony, Von Overbeck withdrew in 1880, leaving Alfred Dent in control. Dent was supported by Sir Rutherford Alcock, and Admiral Sir Harry Keppel.

In July 1881, Alfred Dent and his brother formed the British North Borneo Provisional Association Ltd and obtained an official Royal Charter in November the same year. In May 1882, the British North Borneo Chartered Company replaced the Provisional Association. Sir Rutherford Alcock became the first President, and Alfred Dent became Managing Director. In spite of some diplomatic protests by the Dutch, Spanish and Sarawak governments, the British North Borneo Company proceeded to organize settlement and administration of the territory. The company subsequently acquired further sovereign and territorial rights from the sultan of Brunei, expanding the territory under control to the Putatan river (May 1884), the Padas district (November 1884), the Kawang river (February 1885), the Mantanani islands (April 1885), and additional minor Padas territories (March 1898).

The Company established a foundation for economic growth in North Borneo by restoring peace to a land where piracy and tribal feuds had grown rampant. It abolished slavery and set up transport, health and education services for the people. Chinese immigrants were wooed to boost the small population of less than 100,000. Through the combined effort of the locals and immigrants, towns, farms, a timber industry, tobacco and rubber plantations began to thrive.

In 1888, North Borneo became a protectorate of Great Britain, but its administration remained entirely in the hands of the British North Borneo Company, with the crown reserving only control of foreign relations.

From 1890-1905 the British government placed the colony of Labuan under the administration of North Borneo.

The Companys rule in North Borneo had great impact on the development of the region. Although it was generally peaceful, the local population occasionally resented the imposition of taxes and the loss of land to European plantations. The most serious resistance was the Mat Salleh (Mahomet Saleh) War from 1894-1900, and the Rundum Uprising by the Murut in 1915.

The Chartered Companys system of administration was based on standard British colonial administration structures, with the land divided into Residencies, and sub-divided into Districts. Initially, there were only two Residencies: East Coast and West Coast, with Residents based at Sandakan and Jesselton respectively. Each Residency was divided into Provinces, later known as Districts, which were run by District Officers. By 1922, there were five Residencies to accommodate new areas that were opened up for development. These were the West Coast, Kudat, Tawau, Interior and East Coast Residencies. These Residencies were in turn divided into 17 Districts.

Under this system, British held top posts, while native chiefs managed the people at grassroots level. This was not a conscious attempt by the British to instil indirect rule but a convenient arrangement for the District Officers who were unfamiliar with local customs and politics.

The British North Borneo Company effectively ruled until January 1st., 1942, when Japanese forces occupied Sabah until 1945. The North Borneo Armed Constabulary with only 650 men hardly provided any resistance to slow down the Japanese invasion. During Japanese military occupation, the Europeans were interned, public services ceased to exist, and there were widespread poverty, disease and malnutrition.

In June 1945 the Australian 9th Division landed in Brunei and liberated much of North Borneo before the end of the war. North Borneo was placed under British Military Administration until restoration of civil government on July 15, 1946.

The British North Borneo Company did not have the financial resources to reconstruct North Borneo after the damage of World War 2. The major towns had been razed to the ground by allied bombing, and the infrastructure of North Borneo was in total devastation. The British North Borneo Company decided to sell its interests to the British Government. The territory was placed under control of the colonial office, and became a British Crown Colony on July 15th., 1946. The destruction of the former capital Sandakan was so complete that Jesselton was chosen as the new post-war capital. The colonial system of administration was in most ways similar rule during the Company era, retaining the same Residency and District structure; however, as a result of this change in status, North Borneo had access to British government funds for reconstruction.

A Governor and Commander-in-Chief was appointed to administer the colony of North Borneo with the assistance of an Advisory Council consisting of three ex-officio members: a Chief Secretary, the Attorney-General, and the Financial Secretary, together with other members both official and unofficial whom the Governor chose to appoint. In 1950, the Advisory Council was replaced by the Executive and Legislative Councils.

The Executive Council functioned as a a Cabinetm and was headed by the Chief Secretary. In addition to the Attorney General and the Financial Secretary, it consisted of two officials and four nominated members. The Governor presided at the Executive Council meetings and he alone was entitled to submit questions to the Council.

The Legislative Council consisted of the Governor as President, the usual three ex-officio members, nine official members and ten nominated members.

The high-ranking administrative posts continued to be held by the British, and in fact, it was only in 1957 that the first non-European filled an administrative officer's post.

British North Borneo joined Malaysia on 16 September 1963, and is now the semi-autonomous state of Sabah.

Kalimantan is the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. It occupies the central and southern regions of the island.

Kalimantan is divided into four provinces:

1. Central Kalimantan (Kalimantan Tengah), south of Kalimantan, with capital Palangkaraya
2. East Kalimantan (Kalimantan Timur), northeast of Kalimantan, with capital Samarinda
3. South Kalimantan (Kalimantan Selatan), southeast of Kalimantan, with capital Banjarmasin
4. West Kalimantan (Kalimantan Barat), west of Kalimantan, with capital Pontianak

There was a war in the region between the indigenous Dayaks, who follow Kaharingan Hinduism, and Madurese immigrants, who were moved here as part of a government transmigration program that operated, in various forms, from 1905.The Dayak fighters are known for their ferocious tactics, such as the beheading and mutilation of their victims.

The indigenous populations of Kalimantan are divided into Dayaks, Malays (particularly in West Kalimantan and along coastal lines), and Banjarese-Malay (in South Kalimantan). There are also many migrants from other parts such as Buginese, Javanese, Madurese and Chinese who concentrated in West Kalimantan.

In the past, The Dayaks who converted to Islam were considered as Malay or Banjar. They then moved from their ancestral homeland into riverside. One of the group is called "Senganan" who lives along Kapuas river in Sanggau, West Kalimantan. But recently, there is an increasing proundness among Muslims of Dayak descendants to reconsider themselves as Dayak again.

The Dayaks whose religion mainly Islam and retained their "Dayakness" are Bakumpai who can be found in South Kalimantan and along Mahakam river, East Kalimantan; as well as Lamandau in Central Kalimantan.

Malaysia , independent federation of 128,430 sq miles in Southeast Asia. The official capital and by far the largest city is Kuala Lumpur; Putrajaya is the adminstrative capital.

Malaysia consists of two parts: West Malaysia, also called Peninsular Malaysia or Malaya on the Malay Peninsula and coextensive with the former Federation of Malaya, comprising the states of Perlis, Kedah, Pinang, Perak, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Melaka (Malacca), and Johor, and two federal territories, Wilayah Persekutuan [Federal Territory], within which is the city of Kuala Lumpur, and Putrajaya; and East Malaysia, comprising the states of Sabah and Sarawak (the former British colonies of North Borneo and Northwest Borneo) on the island of Borneo and one federal territory, comprising the island of Labuan. The two parts are separated by 400nm of the South China Sea.

West Malaysia is bordered on the north by Thailand, on the east by the South China Sea, on the south by Singapore (separated by the narrow Johore Strait), and on the west by the Strait of Malacca and the Andaman Sea. East Malaysia is bordered on the north by the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea, on the east by the Celebes Sea, and on the south and west by Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo). Along the coast within Sarawak is the independent nation of Brunei. Both East and West Malaysia have mountainous interiors and coastal plains. The highest point is Mt. Kinabalu (13,455 ft/4,101 m) in Sabah. The longest of the country's many rivers are the Rajang (c.350 mi/560 km) in Sarawak, the Kinabatangan (c.350 mi/560 km) in Sabah, and the Pahang (c.200 mi/320 km) in West Malaysia. Lying close to the equator, Malaysia has a tropical rainy climate. Over two thirds of the land area is forested.

Although it makes up only 31% of the country's area, West Malaysia has more than 80% of its people. Of the total population, most of which is concentrated on the west coast, almost 60% are of Malay or indigenous descent, over 25% are Chinese, and some 10% are Indian or Pakistani. In West Malaysia, Malays comprise about one half of the population, Chinese one third, and Indians and Pakistanis one tenth. In East Malaysia, the two largest groups are the Chinese and the Ibans (Sea Dyaks), an indigenous people, who together make up about three fifths of the total. Conflict between the ethnic groups, particularly between Malays and Chinese, has played a large role in Malaysian history.

Nearly all of the Malays are Muslims, and Islam is the national religion. The majority of Chinese are Buddhists, and the majority of Indians are Hindu. The official language is Bahasa Malaysia (Malay), although English is used in the legal system. Chinese (largely Mandarin), Tamil, and regional ethnic languages and dialects are also widely spoken.

Malaysia is a large producer of rubber and tin; other important industries include palm-oil, crude petroleum and petroleum products, logging, and textiles. Subsistence agriculture remains the basis of livelihood for most Malaysians and Rice is the staple food, while fish supply most of the protein. Industry is largely concentrated in West Malaysia. The major cities on the Malay Peninsula are connected by railroads with Singapore, and an extensive road network covers the west coast. The main trading partners are Japan, the United States, and Singapore.

When the Portuguese captured Malacca (1511), its sultan fled first to Pahang and then to Johor and the Riau Archipelago. One of his sons became the first sultan of Perak. From both Johor and Aceh in Sumatra unsuccessful attacks were made on Malacca. Aceh and Johor also fought each other. The main issue in these struggles was control of trade through the Strait of Malacca. Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu, north of Malacca, became nominal subjects of Siam.

In the early 17th cent. the Dutch established trading bases in Southeast Asia. By 1619 they had established themselves in Batavia (Jakarta), and in 1641, allied with Johor, they captured Malacca after a six-month siege. Another power entered the complicated Malayan picture in the late 17th cent. when the Bugis from Sulawesi, a Malay people economically pressured by the Dutch, began settling in the area of Selangor on the west coast of the peninsula, where they traded in tin. The Bugis captured Johor and Riau in 1721 and, with a few interruptions, maintained control there for about a century, although the Johor sultanate was permitted to remain. The Bugis were also active in Perak and Kedah. Earlier, in the 15th and 16th cent., another Malay people, the Minangkabaus from Sumatra, had peacefully settled inland from Malacca. Their settlements eventually became the state of Negeri Sembilan.

The British role on the peninsula began in 1786, when Francis Light of the British East India Company, searching for a site for trade and a naval base, obtained the cession of the island of Pinang from the sultan of Kedah. In 1791 the British agreed to make annual payments to the sultan, and in 1800 the latter ceded Province Wellesley on the mainland. In 1819 the British founded Singapore, and in 1824 they formally (actual control had been exercised since 1795) acquired Malacca from the Dutch. A joint administration was formed for Pinang, Malacca, and Singapore, which became known as the Straits Settlements.

During this period Siam was asserting its influence southward on the peninsula. In 1816, Siam forced Kedah to invade Perak and made Perak acknowledge Siamese suzerainty. In 1821, Siam invaded Kedah and exiled the sultan. The Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1821 recognized Siamese control of Kedah but left the status of Perak, Kelantan, and Terengganu ambiguous. In 1841 the sultan of Kedah was restored, but Perlis was carved out of the territory of Kedah and put under Siamese protection.

Later in the 19th cent. a number of events led Great Britain to play a more direct part in the affairs of the peninsula. There was conflict between Chinese settlers, who worked in the tin mines, and Malays; there were civil wars among the Malays; and there was an increase in piracy in the western part of the peninsula. Merchants asked the British to restore order. The British were also concerned that Dutch, French, and German interest in the area was increasing. As a result, treaties were made with Perak, Selangor, Pahang, and the components of what became (1895) Negeri Sembilan. In each state a British "resident" was installed to advise the sultan (who received a stipend) and to supervise administration. The Pangkor Treaty of 1874 with Perak served as a model for subsequent treaties.

In 1896 the four states were grouped together as the Federated Malay States with a British resident general. Johor, which had signed a treaty of alliance with Britain in 1885, accepted a British adviser in 1914. British control of the four remaining Malayan states was acquired in 1909, when, by treaty, Siam relinquished its claims to sovereignty over Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, and Terengganu. These four, along with Johor, became known as the Unfederated Malay States.

In the latter half of the 19th century, the Malaya economy assumed many of the major aspects of its present character. The output of tin, which had been mined for centuries, increased greatly with the utilization of modern methods. Rubber trees were introduced (Indian laborers were imported to work the rubber plantations), and Malaya became a leading rubber producer. Malayas economic character, as well as its geographic position, gave it great strategic importance, and the peninsula was quickly overrun by the Japanese at the start of World War II and held by them for the duration of the war. The British, assuming that the attack would come from sea, had built their fortifications accordingly, but a land attack quickly drove them from the island. Malayas Chinese population received particularly harsh treatment during the Japanese occupation.

When the British returned after World War II they arranged (1946) a centralized colony, called the Malayan Union, comprising all their peninsula possessions. Influential Malays vehemently opposed the new organization; they feared that the admission of the large Chinese and Indian populations of Pinang and Malacca to Malayan citizenship would end the special position Malays had always enjoyed, and they were unwilling to surrender the political power they enjoyed within the individual sultanates. The British backed down and established in place of the Union the Federation of Malaya (1948) headed by a British high commissioner. The Federation was an expansion of the former Federated Malay States. Pinang and Malacca became members in addition to the nine Malay states, but there was no common citizenship.

In that same year a Communist insurrection began that was to last more than a decade. The Communist guerrillas, largely recruited from among the Chinese population, employed terrorist tactics. In combating the uprising the British resettled nearly 500,000 Chinese. "The Emergency", as it was called, was declared ended in 1960, although outbreaks of terrorism continued sporadically.

The Communist insurrection had the positive effect of spurring the movement for Malayan independence, and in 1957 the federation became an independent state within the Commonwealth of Nations and was admitted to the United Nations. The first prime minister was Tunku (Prince) Abdul Rahman, the leader of the Alliance Party, a loose coalition of Malay, Chinese, and Indian parties. The constitution guaranteed special privileges for Malays. In 1963 Singapore, Sabah, and Sarawak were added to the federation, creating the Federation of Malaysia. Since Singapore has a large Chinese population, the latter two states were included to maintain a non-Chinese majority. Brunei was also included in the plan but declined to join. Malaysia retained Malayas place in the United Nations and the Commonwealth, and in 1967 it became one of the founding members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

The new state was immediately confronted with the hostility of Indonesia, which described the federation as a British imperialist subterfuge and waged an undeclared war against it. In the struggle Malaysia received military aid from Great Britain and other Commonwealth nations. Hostilities continued until President Sukarnos fall from power in Indonesia (1966). Nonviolent opposition came from the Philippines, which claimed ownership of Sabah. The merger with Singapore did not work out satisfactorily. Friction developed between Malay leaders and Singapores prime minister, Lee Kuan Yew, who had worked to improve the position of the Chinese minority within the Malaysian Federation. In 1965, Singapore peacefully seceded from Malaysia.

The 1964 Race Riots were a series of riots that took place in Singapore during two separate periods in July and September between Chinese and Malays groups. The first incident occurred on 21 July during a Malay procession that marked Prophet Muhammads birthday. In total, the violence killed 36 people and injured another 556. About 3,000 people were arrested. The riots are also known as the Prophet Muhammad Birthday Riots, 1964 Racial Riots, and 1964 Sino-Malay Riots. At that time, Singapore was a state in the Federation of Malaysia.

Indonesias opposition to the 1963 establishment of the Federation of Malaysia presented the only known external threat to Singapore since Japanese occupation. The opposition of Indonesian President Sukarno to the incorporation of Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo into the Federation of Malaysia set up the early stages of a low-intensity conflict called Confrontation, which lasted three years and contributed to Sukarnos political demise. In August 1963, Indonesia deployed several thousand army units to the Indonesian-Malaysian border on Borneo. Throughout the latter part of 1963 and all of 1964 the Indonesian army dispatched units, usually comprising no more than 100 troops, to conduct acts of sabotage and to incite disaffected groups to participate in an insurrection that Djakarta hoped would lead to the dissolution of the Federation. In June and July 1964, Indonesian army units infiltrated Singapore with instructions to destroy transportation and other links between the island and the state of Johor on the Malay Peninsula. Indonesias Kalimantan Army Command also may have been involved in the September 1964 communal riots in Singapore. These riots occurred at the same time Indonesian army units were deployed to areas in Johor in an attempt to locate and encourage inactive communists in the Chinese communities to reestablish guerrilla bases destroyed by British and Malaysian military units during the Malaya Emergency.

On 21 July, 1964, about 25,000 Malays gathered at Padang, Singapore to celebrate Prophet Muhammads birthday. After the speeches, the procession went on to Geylang. Along the way, a group that was dispersed was asked to rejoin the procession by a policeman. Instead of obeying the orders, the group attacked the policeman. This incident led to a race riot after the group of Malays attacked Chinese passers-by and spectators. The riots were reported to have started at about 5:00 pm between Kallang and Geylang Serai. A curfew was declared at 9.30 pm to restore order, but in the first day of riot, 4 people were killed and 178 injured.

After the curfew was lifted at 6 am the next morning, the conflict grew even more tense, and another curfew was imposed; only lifted for short periods for people to buy food. The curfew was completely lifted on 2 August, 11 days after the start of the riots. After the riots, goodwill committees were set up made up of community leaders from the various racial groups. The main job of these leaders was to help restore harmony and peace between the Malays and the Chinese by addressing the concerns of the residents. About 23 people lost their lives and 450 people were injured during the July riots. There was significant damage to property and vehicles. About 2,500 people were arrested, including 600 secret society members and 256 people arrested for possession of dangerous weapons. The rest were arrested for violating the curfew.

Different reasons have been cited for causing the riots. Malaysia Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak blamed Indonesian and Communist provocateurs.

On the other hand, Singapore Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew and several other foreign observers attributed the riots as the result of agitation by Syed Jaffar Albar and other elements of the ultra-nationalist faction in UMNO. According to the Australian Deputy High Commissoner, W.B. Pritchett: "...there can be no doubt that UMNO was solely responsible for the riots. Its members ran the communal campaign or allowed it to happen."

The riots occurred during the period when the PAP-UMNO relations were severely strained after the Peoples Action Party challenged the UMNO in Malaysia federal election in March 1964 with the campaign slogan of Malaysian Malaysia. In addition, the involvement of Chinese secret societies in the riots also increased the level of violence.

A second race riot occurred just a month after the first on 3 September. This time, a Malay trishaw-rider was found murdered at Geylang Serai and his attackers were believed to be a group of Chinese. The race riot ensued in the neighbourhoods of Geylang, Joo Chiat and Siglap, and another curfew was imposed. In this incident, 13 people lost their lives and 106 people were injured. Under the presence of troops and the imposing of curfews, these tensions eventually eased after a few days. 480 people were arrested.

Both Malaysia and Singapore attributed the September riots to Indonesian provocateurs. It was the Konfrontasi period and 30 Indonesian paratroopers had landed in Labis, Johor on 2 September.

Leaders in Malaysia and Singapore were surprised by the rapid escalation of racial violence and both sides made frequent appeals for calm. The riots exposed serious racial tension and the fear of further violence contributed to Singapores secession from the Federation of Malaysia in 1965, when both sides were unable to resolve their disputes.

During the riots, large number of arrests were made under the Internal Security Act (ISA), for those involved in subversion and rioters who were members of secret societies. This helped to contain the violence, especially during the September riots. ISA remains in force in both countries and is used to counter potential threats of communalism or racial and religious violence.

(As a result of these riots Australian Navy personnel in Singapore were no longer allowed ashore in uniform and had to wear civvies.)

The MacDonald House bombing occurred on 10 March, 1965, at the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank building (known as MacDonald House) along Orchard Road, Singapore. The time bomb was planted by Indonesian saboteurs, during the Konfrontasi period. It killed 3 people and injured at least 33.

Since 1963, the Indonesian Government had opposed the formation of Malaysia and infiltrated saboteurs into both Singapore and Malaysia aiming to exploit racial tensions and undertake acts of sabotage to destroy vital installations. These saboteurs later resorted to explode bombs indiscriminately to create public alarm and panic. The bombing of the MacDonald House was the most serious of the bombings in Singapore, killing two Chinese and one Malay. Special Branch officers and Police tracked down and arrested two Indonesian commandos, Harun Said and Osman Hj Mohd Ali, who were members of the Korps Komando Operasi. They were later convicted and executed.

The Holden Station Wagon belonging to the Australian High Commissioner in Singapore was parked outside the building when the bomb detonated.

Indonesia - Competing World Views; The Indonesian Confrontation - a US view(1963)

Indonesia in 1965 & 1966 , a British Viewpoint.

Sukano, the Coup of 1965

West Papua

East Timor